TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
                                                                                
PART 1.  MOUNTAIN CLIMATES
 1.  FOUR FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE
        1.1.  LATITUDE
        1.2.  ALTITUDE
        1.3.  CONTINENTALITY
        1.4.  REGIONAL CIRCULATIONS
                                                                                
PART 2.  AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ATMOSPHERE
 2.  MOUNTAIN CLIMATES OF NORTH AMERICA
        2.1.  THE APPALACHIANS
        2.2.  THE COAST RANGE, THE ALASKA RANGE, THE CASCADES AND THE SIERRA NEVADA
        2.3.  THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS
        2.4.  BETWEEN THE MOUNTAINS
 3.  ATMOSPHERIC SCALES OF MOTION AND ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
        3.1.  ATMOSPHERIC SCALES OF MOTION
        3.2.  ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
                3.2.1.  Permanent and variable gases
                3.2.2.  Aerosols                 3.2.3.  Humidity
                3.2.4.  Water Phase Changes in the Atmosphere
 4.  VERTICAL STRUCTURE, TEMPERATURE, STABILITY AND THE ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER
        4.1.  VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
                4.1.1.  Variations in Temperature, Pressure and Density with Height
                4.1.2.  The Standard Atmosphere
                4.1.3.  Observations of the Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere        4.2.  TEMPERATURE
                4.2.1.  Variations in Temperature with Time, Horizontal Distance and Height
                4.2.2.  Temperature and Safety Concerns
                4.2.3.  Measuring Temperature
        4.3.  ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
                4.3.1.  Determining Atmospheric Stability
                4.3.2.  Variations In Atmospheric Stability
        4.4.  THE ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER AND THE SURFACE ENERGY BUDGET
                4.4.1.  The Net All-Wave Radiation Term R
                4.4.2.  Diurnal Variations in R and in the Surface Energy Budget                4.4.3.  Factors Causing Spatial and Non-Diurnal Temporal Variations in R and the Surface Energy Budget
                4.4.4.  Diurnal Evolution of ABL Temperature Structure over the Plains
 5.  PRESSURE AND WINDS
        5.1.  ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
                5.1.1.  Measuring Atmospheric Pressure
                5.1.2.  Pressure and Height
                5.1.3.  Pressure Analyses
                5.1.4.  Hemispheric Pressure Waves
                5.1.5.  High and Low Pressure Centers and Wind Direction
        5.2.  WINDS
                5.2.1.  General Circulation
                        5.2.1.1.  Pole-equator temperature contrasts
                        5.2.1.2.  Vertical motions, pressure belts and wind belts
                        5.2.1.3.  Jet streams
                5.2.2.  Designating Wind Direction and Wind Speed
                5.2.3.  Wind Observations
                5.2.4.  Vertical Wind Structure and Its Evolution
 6.  AIR MASSES AND FRONTS
        6.1.  AIR MASS SOURCE REGIONS AND TRAJECTORIES
        6.2.  FRONTS
 7.  CLOUDS AND FOGS
        7.1.  CLOUDS
                7.1.1.  Classification of Clouds
                7.1.2.  Clouds Associated with Fronts
                7.1.3.  The Influence of Mountains on Circulations around Pressure Centers and Cloud Formation
                7.1.4.  Clouds that Form over Mountains
                        7.1.4.1.  Foehn (chinook) wall clouds
                        7.1.4.2.  Chinook arch clouds
                        7.1.4.3.  Rotor clouds
                        7.1.4.4.  Lenticular clouds
                        7.1.4.5.  Cap clouds
                        7.1.4.6.  Banner clouds
                        7.1.4.7.  Billow clouds
                        7.1.4.8.  Fractocumulus and fractostratus clouds
                        7.1.4.9.  Jet stream cirrus
        7.2.  FOGS
 8.  PRECIPITATION
        8.1.  PRECIPITATION
                8.1.1.  Types of Precipitation
                8.1.2.  Intensity of Precipitation
                8.1.3.  Measuring Precipitation
                8.1.4.  Formation of Precipitation
                8.1.5.  Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Precipitation
                        8.1.5.1.  Effects of terrain height on spatial variation of precipitation
                        8.1.5.2.  Day to day and diurnal variations in precipitation
                        8.1.5.3.  Seasonal variation of precipitation, and the monsoon
                        8.1.5.4.  Year to year variations in precipitation
                8.1.6.  Icing
                8.1.7.  Mountain Thunderstorms
                        8.1.7.1.  Life cycle of mountain air mass thunderstorms
                        8.1.7.2.  Severe thunderstorms
                        8.1.7.3.  Lightning
 9.  WEATHER MAPS, FORECASTS AND DATA
        9.1.  WEATHER MAPS
        9.2.  FORECASTING GUIDELINES
        9.3.  WEATHER INFORMATION:  DATA COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION
                9.3.1.  Weather Data Collection
                9.3.2.  Weather Data Dissemination
                9.3.3.  METARs and TAFs
        9.4.  OBTAINING PROFESSIONAL FORECASTS FOR MAJOR FEDERAL PROJECTS
                                                                                
PART 3.  MOUNTAIN WINDS
10.  TERRAIN-FORCED FLOWS
        10.1.  THREE FACTORS AFFECTING TERRAIN-FORCED FLOWS
        10.2.  FLOW OVER MOUNTAINS
                10.2.1.  Mountain Waves, Lee Waves and Hydraulic Flows
                10.2.2.  Downslope Windstorms - The Bora, the Foehn and the Chinook
        10.3.  FLOW AROUND MOUNTAINS
                10.3.1.  Barrier Jets
                10.3.2.  Flow Splitting and Convergence Zones
                10.3.3.  Frontal Blockages and Post-Frontal Accelerations
        10.4.  FLOWS THROUGH PASSES, GAPS AND CHANNELS
                10.4.1.  Flows through Coastal Mountain Ranges
                10.4.2.  Flow into Heat Lows
                10.4.3.  The Venturi (or Bernoulli) Effect
                10.4.4.  Forced Channeling
        10.5.  BLOCKING, OBSTRUCTION OF AIR MASSES, AND COLD AIR DAMMING
                10.5.1.  Blocking
                10.5.2.  Obstruction of Air Masses
                10.5.3.  Cold Air Damming
        10.6.  ON THE HIGH PLAINS:  THE LOW-LEVEL JET
11.  DIURNAL MOUNTAIN CIRCULATIONS
        11.1.  SLOPE WIND SYSTEM
                11.1.1.  Variations in the Slope Wind System over Time and Space                11.1.2.  Influence of Atmospheric Stability and Terrain on the Slope Wind System
                11.1.3.  Slope Flows and the Surface Energy Budget
        11.2.  ALONG-VALLEY WIND SYSTEM
                11.2.1.  Correspondence between Vertical Wind and Temperature Structures
                11.2.2.  Flow Strength and Depth
                11.2.3.  Wind Reversal
                11.2.4.  The Horizontal Pressure Gradient
                11.2.5.  Cold Air Pools
                11.2.6.  Return Circulations
        11.3.  CROSS-VALLEY WINDS
        11.4.  MOUNTAIN-PLAIN WIND SYSTEM
        11.5.  DIURNAL MOUNTAIN CIRCULATIONS IN BASINS
        11.6.  DIURNAL MOUNTAIN CIRCULATIONS OVER PLATEAUS
        11.7.  THE DAILY CYCLE OF VALLEY WIND AND TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE
                11.7.1.  Evening Transition Period
                11.7.2.  Fully Decoupled Period (Nighttime)
                11.7.3.  Morning Transition Period
                11.7.4.  Fully Coupled Period (Daytime)
        11.8.  DISTURBANCES OF THE DAILY CYCLE BY LARGER-SCALE FLOWS
                11.8.1.  Sudden High Wind Break-Ins
                11.8.2.  Channeling of Synoptic Flows
                11.8.3.  Changes in the Regional Surface Energy Budget
        11.9.  OTHER LOCAL THERMALLY-DRIVEN WIND SYSTEMS
                11.9.1.  Sea (or Lake) and Land Breezes
                11.9.2.  Glacier Winds
                11.9.3.  Fire Winds
                                                                                
PART 4.  SELECTED APPLICATIONS OF MOUNTAIN METEOROLOGY
12.  AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION
        12.1.  CLASSIFICATION AND REGULATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
                12.1.1.  Types and Sources of Air Pollutants
                12.1.2.  The Clean Air Act
                12.1.3.  National Ambient Air Quality Standards
                12.1.4.  Emission Standards
        12.2.  AIR QUALITY STUDIES AND AIR POLLUTION MODELS
                12.2.1.  Wind-Field Models
                12.2.2.  Air Quality Models
        12.3.  WIND SPEED AND AIR POLLUTION CONCENTRATIONS
                12.3.1.  Dilution and Diffusion of Air Pollutants
                12.3.2.  Fugitive Dust
        12.4.  STABILITY, INVERSIONS AND MIXING DEPTH
                12.4.1.  Surface-Based Inversions
                12.4.2.  Elevated Inversions
                12.4.3.  Stability and Plume Behavior
        12.5.  SYNOPTIC WEATHER CATEGORIES AND AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION
        12.6.  MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN AND ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION
                12.6.1.  Effect of Mountains on Regional and Hemispheric Pollution
                        12.6.1.1.  Acid precipitation
                        12.6.1.2.  Regional visibility impairments
                12.6.2.  Pollution Dispersion in Terrain-Forced Flows
                12.6.3.  Pollution Dispersion in Diurnal Mountain Flows
                        12.6.3.1.  Defined plume pathways
                        12.6.3.2.  Pooling
                        12.6.3.3.  Peak downslope flows
                        12.6.3.4.  Plume impingement
                        12.6.3.5.  Fumigations
        12.7.  ASSESSING AIR POLLUTION POTENTIAL IN MOUNTAIN TERRAIN
13.  FIRE WEATHER AND SMOKE MANAGEMENT
        13.1.  THE FIRE ENVIRONMENT
        13.2.  FUEL MOISTURE CONTENT
        13.3.  FIRE WEATHER IN COMPLEX TERRAIN
                13.3.1.  Humidity and Temperature
                        13.3.1.1.  The effects of aspect and elevation on humidity and temperature
                        13.3.1.2.  The effects of surface properties on humidity and temperature
                        13.3.1.3.  Humidity, fuel moisture content and fire severity
                13.3.2.  Wind
                        13.3.2.1.  Wind composition
                        13.3.2.2.  Winds of Most Concern to Firefighters
                        13.3.2.3.  The effects of slope inclination angle and wind on fire behavior
                        13.3.2.4.  Fire-induced winds
                13.3.3.  Atmospheric Stability
                        13.3.3.1.  Atmospheric instability, low humidity and large fires
                        13.3.3.2.  Inversions
        13.4.  CRITICAL FIRE WEATHER
                13.4.1.  Fire Seasons
                13.4.2.  Droughts
                13.4.3.  Fire Weather Watches and Red Flag Warnings
                13.4.4.  Extreme Fire Behavior
                        13.4.4.1.  Wind-driven fires
                        13.4.4.2.  Plume-dominated fires
        13.5.  PRESCRIBED FIRE AND SMOKE MANAGEMENT
                13.5.1.  Air Quality and Safety Concerns
                13.5.2.  Meteorological Conditions and Smoke Management Strategies
                13.5.3.  Smoke Management Forecasts
        13.6.  MONITORING FIRE WEATHER AND SMOKE DISPERSION PARAMETERS
                13.6.1.  Manual Field Measurements
                13.6.2.  Pilot Balloons
                13.6.3.  On-Site Upper Air Soundings
                13.6.4.  Remote Automatic Weather Stations
                13.6.5.  Doppler Weather Radar
                13.6.6.  Satellite Remote Sensing
                13.6.7.  Obtaining Fire Weather Forecasts
14.  AERIAL SPRAYING
        14.1.  INTRODUCTION
        14.2.  OVERVIEW OF AERIAL SPRAYING
                14.2.1.  Phenological and Meteorological Time Constraints
                14.2.2.  Materials Sprayed
                14.2.3.  Aircraft and Spray Equipment
                14.2.4.  Geographic Information and Positioning Technology
        14.3.  METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT AERIAL SPRAYING OPERATIONS
                14.3.1.  Wind Fields and Droplet Trajectories
                        14.3.1.1.  Droplet settling velocities
                        14.3.1.2.  Aircraft wake vortices
                        14.3.1.3.  Effects of the mean ambient wind field
                        14.3.1.4.  Effects of atmospheric turbulence
                14.3.2.  Humidity and Temperature
                14.3.3.  Atmospheric Stability
                14.3.4.  Precipitation
        14.4.  SPRAY DEPOSITION
        14.5.  ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN COMPLEX TERRAIN
                14.5.1.  Diurnal Mountain Flows
                14.5.2.  Terrain-forced Flows
        14.6.  COLLECTION OF METEOROLOGICAL DATA
                14.6.1.  Siting of Instruments
                14.6.2.  Sampling Duration
                14.6.3.  Sampling Frequency
        14.7.  COMPUTER MODELING
        14.8.  INTEGRATION OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION INTO OPERATIONS
                14.8.1.  Meteorology and the Operational Plan
                14.8.2.  Project Personnel and Meteorological Training
                14.8.3.  Weather Forecast Support
                14.8.4.  Evaluation of Spray Operations
                14.8.5.  Meteorological Information and Public Relations
                                                                                
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A - Formulas
B - Psychrometric Tables
C - Sources of Information on Weather Monitoring and Instrumentation
D - Units, Unit Conversion Factors and Time Conversions
E - Solar Radiation on Slopes
F - Additional Reading
G - METAR and TAF Code Abbreviations
                                                                                
GLOSSARY
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
INDEX